Air pollution: The silent killer

The World Health Organization (WHO) notes that air pollution is one of the greatest environmental risks to human health, with 99% of the population residing in places that don’t meet the WHO’s air quality guidelines. And with around 7 million lives lost annually to complications generated by air pollution, this has become a global threat. 

In this article, we’ll outline the causes and effects of air pollution, and the legislation in Europe, the US, and the UK aiming to create a greener and safer environment.

What is air pollution?

An invisible threat to all countries and people around the world, air pollution is typically classified into two types: indoor (household) pollution and outdoor (ambient) pollution.

The most common sources of air pollution, as defined by the WHO, are: 

• Household combustion devices 

• Motor vehicles 

• Industrial facilities 

• Forest fires
   

Causes of air pollution

Pollution enters the atmosphere in many ways, both through anthropogenic sources (human activity) and natural sources (the environment).  

The following common causes of air pollution are: 

• Emissions and fossil fuels — from factories, cars, planes, aerosol cans, and construction materials 

• Smoking — second-hand cigarette smoke 

• Indoor heating — burning kerosene, wood, and coal 

• Natural disasters — such as wildfires and volcanic ash 

• Weather conditions — changing weather conditions can generate dust storms, which can then carry industrial pollutants and particles across cities 

• Construction materials — generating toxins such as radon, a carcinogenic material 

• Pollen and mold — from trees, weeds, and grass 

Effects of air pollution

The WHO has identified the most common pollutants produced in air pollution: 

• Particulate matter — including sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, and water 

• Carbon monoxide — generated by the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels like wood, petrol, charcoal, natural gas, and kerosene 

• Ozone — produced by reacting with gases in sunlight to produce photochemical smog 

• Nitrogen dioxide — released from the combustion of fuels in transportation and industrial sectors 

• Sulfur dioxide — produced by burning fossil fuels and smelting mineral ores 

Review our experts’ article on the 6 criteria air pollutants that set the standard for air quality.
 

Human health impacts 

Approximately 3.2 million people die from illnesses attributed to household air pollution annually, according to findings from the WHO. Of these: 

• 32% are from ischemic heart disease 

• 23% are from stroke 

• 21% are from lower respiratory infections 

• 19% are from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 

• 6% are from lung cancer 

In 2019, the WHO recorded an unprecedented loss of life linked to air pollution, with 86 million people passing away due to air pollution complications.  

Further, residents in areas with high pollution can suffer short-term illnesses like pneumonia and bronchitis; nose, throat, and eye irritation; and headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Longer-term effects include heart disease, lung and respiratory diseases, organ damage, and in some cases, birth defects.
 

Environmental impacts  

The environmental impacts of air pollution affect humans, animals, and plants alike. Ever-reliant on the planet for our food, resources, and ultimate survival, any damage to the soil and water can very quickly become critical. 

Firstly, when the air is polluted by gases, particulate matter (PM) eventually settles back down into the earth, contaminating lakes, rivers, seas, and soil. Corrupted soil compositions and water quality leads to the death of crops, trees, and other plants that humans and animals rely on for food. Further, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere can produce acid rain, which decays plants and buildings.  

Secondly, burning fuels creates toxic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These emissions increase the global surface temperature of the planet. Higher ambient temperatures melts sea ice, increasing sea levels, which in turn makes floods more likely. Carbon dioxide acidifies the ocean, damaging marine life — and, therefore, seafood for humans and ecosystems for animals. Hotter temperatures also increases the likelihood of wildfires, which, cyclically, produce more air pollution! 

Regulations to reduce air pollution

As the effects of air pollution contribute to the ongoing threat of global warming and climate change, countries around the world have implemented air pollution policies in an attempt to mitigate the impacts.  

Europe, the United States, and the UK all have legislation holding their countries and member states accountable for creating healthier air quality through more sustainable practices.
 

Europe
 

Proposed revision of the Ambient Air Quality Directives

Most recently, the EU has proposed strengthened EU air quality standards for 2030 aimed at reducing air pollution in Europe, contributing to the EU’s aim to achieve zero air pollution by 2050.  

The new rules set stricter 2030 limits and target values for many air pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The air quality indices will be comparable across Member States with air quality sampling points set up in cities.  

If these rules are violated, citizens affected by air pollution will be able to take legal action and possibly receive compensation for health complications.
 

Zero Pollution Action Plan

The main strategy tackling pollution in the EU — the Zero Pollution Action Plan for 2050 — was adopted in May 2021 and forms a key deliverable of the European Green Deal. 

The Plan aims to reduce air, water, and soil pollution to levels no longer considered harmful to human or natural life. To speed up pollution reduction, the following targets must be met by 2030: 

• Reduce the number of premature deaths caused by air pollution by 55% 

• Reduce plastic litter in the sea by 50% and microplastics in the environment by 30% 

• Reduce nutrient losses and chemical pesticides by 50% 

• Reduce the threat of biodiversity loss by 25% 

• Reduce transport noise by 30% 

• Reduce waste generation and residual municipal waste by 50% 

Industrial Emissions Directive

Another primary policy targeting air, water, and waste pollution is the EU’s Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) adopted in 2010. Aiming to protect human health and the environment from overall pollution, the directive focuses on reducing harmful industrial emissions.  

Approximately 52,000 installations listed in Annex I are held accountable by this law through permits dictating emission limits.  

In 2024, the EU co-legislators adopted a revision of the IED with a focus on: 

• Covering further industrial installations (such as battery giga-factories and additional intensive livestock farms) 

• Establishing stricter emission limits and new environmental performance limit values 

• Ensuring the monitoring and efficiency use of resources (including water, energy and raw materials) 

• Requiring operators of industrial installations to implement an environmental management system 

• Introducing stricter penalties for non-compliance with the directive 

• Granting citizens whose health has been damaged to claim compensation from companies that infringed the directive 

The revised IED aligns with the goals of the European Green Deal and zero pollution action plan.  

United States

Clean Air Act

In the US, the Clean Air Act (CAA) is a federal law which establishes limits, set by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), on air pollutants. While some states may have stronger air pollution regulations, they aren’t permitted to have lower limits than those established by EPA.  

The Clean Air Act authorizes EPA to limit air pollutant emissions from chemical plants, utilities, and steel mills, to maintain alignment with the overall limit of pollutants permitted in US air.  

The Act covers air quality limitations, ozone protection, the prevention of deteriorating air quality, nonattainment areas, vehicle emissions, noise pollution, and more.  

United Kingdom

Air quality legislation in the UK is covered by a combination of international policies, such as the Gothenburg Protocol to the UNECE Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), retained EU laws, and amended domestic regulations.
 

Clean Air Strategy

Established in January 2019, the Clean Air Strategy sets out the UK’s plans for controlling all sources of air pollution to promote a healthier environment. 

To improve air quality, the strategy lays out actions to: 

• Protect the UK’s health 

• Protect the environment 

• Secure clean growth and innovation 

• Reduce emissions 

• Monitor progress 

It forms part of three other UK strategies, all aimed at improving the country’s overall environmental state: the Industrial Strategy, the Clean Growth Strategy, and the 25 Year Environment Plan.
 

Revised UK National Air Pollution Control Programme 

The National Air Pollution Control Programme (NAPCP) establishes measures and analysis for emission reductions across the UK. The program details how UK businesses and households can meet 2020 and 2030 emission reduction commitments (ERCs), applying to the following pollutants: 

• Nitrogen oxides 

• Ammonia 

• Non-methane volatile organic compounds 

• Particulate matter 

• Sulphur dioxide 

The program exists under the National Emission Ceilings Regulations 2018.   

Combating air pollution

Addressing air pollution is crucial for protecting the health of human, animal, and plant life.  

Firstly, it’s important that companies promote supply chain transparency so manufacturers know what their products and processes release into the environment. Once businesses are aware of the potential damage they’re contributing to, they could look into more sustainable alternatives that don’t corrupt water, soil, or air.  

The increase in mandatory sustainability reporting requirements, like the CSRD, ensure companies remain mindful of, and actively alter, their operations to both maintain compliance and support sustainable alternatives.  

There are many ways businesses can implement policies to reduce existing air pollution: 

• Opt for cleaner technologies  

• Ensure access to affordable clean household energy 

• Shift to electric vehicles, low-emissions vehicles and fuels, or public transport 

• Improve the energy efficiency of buildings and cities  

• Rely more on renewable energy, such as solar, wind and hydropower 

• Implement effective strategies for waste management, including ways to reduce, separate, recycle, and reuse waste 

Much like the potentially devastating impacts of climate change — of which air pollution is a contributing factor — this global threat requires global cooperation. For businesses to play their part in keeping our planet and people safe from this ongoing threat, they need to identify both the new and changing regulations that seek to control air pollution. Leveraging a regulatory intelligence tool like Enhesa’s Compliance Intelligence solution helps businesses mitigate the risk of non-compliance with emerging legislation. See where your company is positioned against baseline metrics, identify which requirements apply to your processes, and report on your sustainability efforts.